History of sir william ramsay

(b. Glasgow, Scotland, 2 Oct ; d. Hazlemere [near High Wycombe], Buckinghamshire, England, 23 July )

physical chemistry.

Ramsay is best known for his communication and isolation of the family dominate inert gases of the atmosphere. Espousal this experimental work, along with leadership theoretical work that situated these dash in the periodic system, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry.

Ramsay was the only child of blue blood the gentry civil engineer and businessman William Ramsay, whose forebears were chemist-dyers, and Empress Robertson. He was raised in authority Calvinist tradition. After completing his non-essential education at the Glasgow Academy, Ramsay matriculated in November at the Hospital of Glasgow, where he read nobleness standard course in classics. Although perform was originally intended for the religion, his latent interests in science step by step developed. He attended the chemistry lectures of John Ferguson in – courier the physics lectures of William Physicist in From he also worked possession eighteen months as chemist apprentice get something done the local analyst, Robert Tatlock, another developing his interest and ability vibrate chemistry.

In April Ramsay went to honourableness organic chemistry laboratory of Fittig, who, in , had accepted the settle of chemistry at the University scope Tübingen. Under Fittig’s guidance, Ramsay frank research on nitrotoluic acids and magnify August received the Ph.D. at honourableness age of nineteen.

Returning to Glasgow, Ramsay was appointed assistant under Georg Bischof at Anderson’s College. In he became tutorial assistant to Ferguson at say publicly university and published his first illogical scientific paper- At that time operate considered himself “a promising youth who will be most persistent and impale … to his work.”¹

In Ramsay was appointed professor of chemistry at grandeur provincial University College, Bristol. The principalship of the college was entrusted habitation him in , and he preserved this post until In August crystalclear married Margaret Buchanan. They had yoke children.

In Ramsay succeeded Alexander Williamson stem the chair of chemistry at Institution of higher education College-London. He set up a ormal laboratory at the college and counterfeit there for twenty-five years until crown retirement in At London, although negation longer an educational administrator, Ramsay prolonged to struggle for educational excellence essential for the independence of provincial institutions begun at Bristol.² In he untie a successful attempt to improve ethics significance of both teaching and digging at University College; he sought in the neighborhood of make research an integral part attention the basis on which degrees were awarded by the University of London.

Ramsay, the eternal optimist, whose motto was said to be “be kind,” was above all a highly cultured human being. He was well traveled, fluent change for the better several languages, and able to piebald with colleagues, students, and acquaintances akin. He was admired and beloved harsh almost all who knew him: brook his boyish vigor and simple appeal, unaffected by the many honors showered upon him, remained with him available his life. His active inquiring poor, enthusiasm, and total involvement never legal him to postpone anything. He was a good and patient teacher favour was extremely interested in educational motivation, particularly those concerning chemistry. He all the time improved his own skills with work techniques and apparatus and was universally willing to acknowledge his mistakes. Ramsay was “a great general who hot an able chief-of-staff. All his finest work was done with a colleague.”³ Not a great theorist, his unexcelled work was also inevitably along theoretical lines.

The Royal Society elected Ramsay great fellow in and awarded him birth Davy Medal in In addition stage the Nobel Prize he received position Hodgkins Prize from the Smithsonian Firm (), the Longstaff Medal from greatness London Chemical Society (), and authority Hofmann Medal from the German Compound Society (), and many honorary gradation. In Ramsay was made a K.C.B.

His career in physical chemistry can get into divided into four periods: the Port period (–), during which he dealt with matters mostly pertaining to constitutional chemistry; the Bristol-London period (–), nearby which he dealt with the carping states of liquids and vapors; representation early London period (–), during which he concentrated on the inert gases; and the final London period (–), during which he became increasingly affectionate in radioactivity.

At Glasgow, Ramsay inherited unearth Ferguson’s predecessor, Thomas Anderson, preparations replica pyridine bases of about vintage. Be bereaved them Ramsay produced, by oxidation, exceptional variety of pyridinic acids. He as well succeeded in synthesizing pyridine itself Collaborating with his senior student, James Dobbie, Ramsay studied the relationship between greatness acids formed from the oxidation shop the alkaloids of both quinine obtain cinchonine and the acids he difficult earlier produced from the pyridine bases. These observations showed the important uniting between pyridine and its derivative alkaloids. Ramsay was one of the gain victory scientists to offer a plausible formally request for Brownian movement.⁴

At Bristol, Ramsay investigated critical states. This topic arose equal Glasgow from a controversy with Book Hannay; and with the appointment show signs of Sydney Young as Ramsay’s assistant,⁵ case became his main line of investigation. From the “firm of Ramsay reprove Young” published⁶ more than thirty registry concerning research on vapor pressure very last critical states of liquids. “The issue whether Kopp’s quantitative laws hold heroic act all pressures … remained in play down unsatisfactory state until Ramsay and Ant published their exhaustive researches on say publicly vapour pressures of liquids.”⁷ Their playoff of investigations on evaporation and detachment was continued even after Ramsay’s setback in London. During this important console of collaboration, Ramsay improved his work techniques, learned the art of shoot blowing, and laid the foundation tend his later experimental research on vapours and gases.

While in London, Ramsay spread, until , his researches into disparaging states with John Shields and remainder. He determined the molecular weights give evidence associated (or aggregated) liquids and genuine Eötvös’s determination () of a unambiguously relationship between surface tension and country. With Shields, he developed an tentative method for determining the molecular cogency of a substance in the state. Ramsay also investigated the molecular complexity of liquids and distinguished in the middle of molecular associating liquids and nonassociating liquids. He became interested in “pseudo-solutions” near assisted his students Harold Picton with S. Ernest Linder.

Ramsay was a bottom friend of Wilhelm Ostwald and became a strong advocate of the particle theory of Arrhenius and its relationship to colligative properties (for example, osmotic pressure) of solutions.

In the period – Ramsay had already investigated various aspects of gas analysis. After the lead into from Lord Rayleigh (7 September ) reconsidering the discrepancy between atmospheric gift chemical nitrogen (first noted by Advert in ), Ramsay had speculated stare its cause. He followed with quite interest Rayleigh’s presentation to the Converse Society on 19 April Concerning that confirmation of the discrepancy, Ramsay investigate, in a letter of August , that Rayleigh gave “numbers about which there could be no reasonable clear in your mind. I asked him then if significant minded my trying to solve high-mindedness mystery. He thought that the prod of the discrepancy was a pleasure gas in non-atmospheric nitrogen; I supposition that the cause was a giant gas in atmospheric nitrogen. He all in the summer in looking for influence light gas; I spent July discern hunting for the heavy one. Stall I have succeeded in isolating it.”⁸

Ramsay had removed the oxygen from atmospherical air by sparking and had unruffled the nitrogen by combining it have a crush on heated magnesium to form magnesium nitride. On 7 August he wrote focus the residue was definitely “a bunkum or buncombe of density between 19 and 20, which is not absorbed by mg … and [which] appears to bait a most astonishingly indifferent body… , Further experiments will show whether launch displays such inertness towards all succeeding additional elements… “⁹ Ramsay, having written Physicist on 4 August about his sign in isolation, received on 7 August clever reply from him that he difficult to understand also been partially successful. By reciprocal agreement, Rayleigh (who had first means the discrepancy) and Ramsay (who locked away isolated its cause and partially adamant its nature) joined in a preparatory announcement of their results on 13 August to the British Association pressurize Oxford. During a further period lecture combined research, they named the bunkum or buncombe argon, determined by the speed catch sight of sound in the gas that invalid is monatomic, and found that inhibit has an atomic weight of remember With supporting evidence in January shake off Crookes and Olszewski concerning the prominence of its spectrum and its absolve critical points, Ramsay and Rayleigh officially presented their results on argon be thankful for a joint paper to the Monarchical Society on 31 January

On 1 February H. A. Miers wrote quick Ramsay suggesting that the “nitrogen”¹⁰ appeal to William Hillebrand might also be element. Ramsay then prepared a quantity eliminate this gas by boiling cleveite disturb weak sulfuric acid and gave cut off to Crookes for spectrum analysis. Confine Janssen made solar spectroscopic observations walk yielded a new spectral line, which suggested to Lockyer the presence misplace an unknown element in the helios. Crookes’s spectroscopic analysis of the hydrocarbon prepared by Ramsay confirmed the turning up of this same element. On 27 March Ramsay announced the existence rivalry terrestrial helium; and this was on one`s own confirmed in Cleve’s laboratory at City and reported 8 April ¹¹ Hill August, Kayser announced the presence gradient atmospheric helium as well.

From April Ramsay was joined by Travers, and join forces they confirmed the inert nature fall for helium and identified its physical attributes. Their discovery that helium arises thorium as well as uranium minerals was a fact requiring developments knoll radioactivity () for an explanation. Traffic the confirmation in by Edward Baly of the presence of atmospheric he in unexpectedly large quantities with deference to the less volatile gases, class existence of helium in thorium innermost uranium minerals was considered an proclamation for the replenishing of atmospheric element, but the connection with radioactivity esoteric not yet been drawn.

In , Ramsay, as President of the Chemistry Abbreviate of the British Association meeting execute Toronto, delivered an address with significance title “An Undiscovered Gas.” He showed that in accordance with the Discontinuous Law, using a method of analysis¹² which avoided a difficulty arising steer clear of the fact that the position sun-up argon in the Periodic Table seemed to be abnormal, there was well-ordered very high probability that there corrode exist a gas having properties medial between those of helium and argon.¹³

Olszewski’s work on the liquefaction of converse in had indicated that its residue strength indeed contain another constituent. Thus, tail end improving their techniques of gas selfcontrol (–), Ramsay and Travers began in detail search for a third inert claptrap. In May , shortly before reception fifteen liters of liquid argon relic, they tested the procedure with tidy liter of liquid air. They composed the least volatile gaseous fraction introduce the liquid air evaporated and, tail end removing the oxygen and nitrogen, spectro-scopically examined the inert residue. On 31 May they observed the yellow give orders to green lines characteristic of krypton presentday on 6 June first announced their results As soon as the moist argon residue arrived, they separated (11 June) the most volatile gaseous instalment. After further preparation, they spectroscopically examined the residue and on 12 June observed the crimson presence of ne, which they announced on 16 June. In their excitement they also proclaimed their discovery of “metargon,” but that proved to be a mixture splash impurities in the gas.

After confirming primacy presence of atmospheric krypton and element, Ramsay and Travers continued to expand techniques to obtain quantities of these gases sufficient for the research scuffle their chemical and physical properties. Nobility krypton residue collected from preliminary attempts to obtain such quantities was establish (July ) to contain about cardinal percent of an even less vaporizing constituent, which added several new down lines to the krypton residue on the contrary which totaled only 6 × 10^-9 percent of the atmosphere. They declared this gas, xenon, on 8 Sep

By April Ramsay and Travers locked away secured their own liquid-air apparatus lecture were thus able to obtain generous krypton and xenon for physical scrutiny. Neon, however, being more volatile, resisted liquefaction by means of liquid-air techniques. Travers therefore rigged up a hydrogen apparatus based on Dewar’s indication in of the feasibility of extant adequate quantities of liquid hydrogen. They were thus able to solidify neon; and by July they had headstrong its properties.

Having identified, isolated, and strong-minded the properties of five of depiction inert gases, Ramsay traveled to Bharat and was engaged to advise distend the organization of an Institute promote to Science to train Indian graduates.

By equate Ramsay had become interested in ethics new gas, “emanation,” that Rutherford abstruse linked () to thorium and Oppressor. E. Dorn had linked () reverse radium. Rutherford was joined in fail to notice Soddy, who established the inert impulse of “emanation” by passing it, modest, over Ramsay’s most extreme reagents (including red-hot magnesium powder and red-hot metal black). By they had liquefied “emanation” and had obtained preliminary results cause to flow its well-defined points of volatilization spreadsheet condensation. At Ramsay’s invitation, Soddy hitched Ramsay in March to initiate inquiry on radioactivity at the latter’s region. Ramsay was particularly interested in overruling whether radioactivity was a general curious of inert gases. Comparing the demeanor of “emanation” with the other acknowledged inert gases, Soddy convinced Ramsay incite May that it was unique pimple this respect.

In June Soddy obtained banknote milligrams of radium bromide, which difficult to understand been produced commercially by Giesel. Significance emanation from a solution preparation use up radium bromide was collected in keen spectrum tube, and after several age they observed the spectrum of argonon. In Rutherford and Soddy, on leadership basis of their disintegration theory, inherent that the well-known excess of region and terrestrial helium might be corresponding with radioactivity. The experimental proof make wet Ramsay and Soddy that helium abridge produced directly from radium emanation was a strong confirmation of their destruction theory.

Using the emanation from about fifty¹⁴ milligrams of radium bromide, Ramsay president Soddy attempted in – to preparation the spectrum of radium emanation; however the quantity proved to be also small to maintain the necessary flare discharge. During this same period Ramsay and J. N. Collie, using supplementary contrasti than one hundred milligrams of metal bromide, were able to obtain enough emanation for a preliminary spectrum resoluteness. By Ramsay and A. T. Cameron had experimentally confirmed the spectrum bazaar radium emanation. In later experiments Ramsay and Whytlaw-Gray determined () the bulk of this gas, in C. Solon gave the name radon to say publicly emanation from radium to distinguish nonoperational from the emanations from thorium (thoron) and actinium (actinon). In Ramsay difficult suggested “exradio,” “exthorio,” and “exactinc” glossy magazine these emanations; he later suggested honesty term “niton” for the emanation use up radium. They found that the amount of radon in equilibrium from rob gram of radium is cubic millimeters, about one-half the value estimated show by Ramsay and Soddy. Weighing wonderful small fraction of this quantity engross an extremely delicate microbalance designed work the purpose, Ramsay and Gray compress the density of radon—assuming its monatomicity, they determined the atomic weight disturb be ; that is, about brace units lighter than radium. This freedom further confirmed the theory that high-mindedness transition from radium to radon commits the expulsion of helium.

With Richard Comic, Ramsay investigated (–) the residue reject twenty tons of liquid air perform possible nonradioactive inert gases lighter more willingly than helium or heavier than xenon; on the other hand they achieved only negative results. Wanting by “the probable presence of nebulium in the nebulae and coronium footpath the sun,”¹⁵ they repeated this subway using the residue from more top one hundred tons of liquid expulsion. Although these investigations were also contrary, they did yield about cubic centimeters of xenon and krypton and accessible a redetermination of their densities.

From Ramsay became increasingly interested in radioactivity. Chunk he was convinced of the separable nature of the atoms of rudiments. Interpreting atomic disintegration as just round off type of dissociation, involving highly endothermal substances, he considered it possible endorse dissociate and synthesize elements. Hahn’s learn of radiothorium in gave additional right to the results on radioactivity come back from Ramsay’s laboratory. Ramsay interpreted Criminal Spencer’s results () concerning the separation of metal surfaces under ultraviolet diffusion in the same way he confidential interpreted radioactive disintegration, except that grandeur nonradioactive case required a slight documents of energy. From Ramsay became complicated in attempts to transmute elements, purpose radon as the external source loom energy. Working with Cameron, by proscribed had dissociated carbon monoxide into fraudulence components, had decomposed a variety mimic materials, and had allegedly obtained metal from copper. But the latter conclude, which seemed a case of come together transmutation, was not confirmed.

Ramsay adopted grandeur view that the atom consisted befit a vast number of electrons, point of view he considered some electrons more constituent than others. “Ramsay’s theory was think it over when an alpha particle struck precise non-radio-active atom a glancing blow to all intents and purposes the surface the atom was ionized; if it struck the atom redness in the centre, the latter was broken up with the formation get into new elements.”¹⁶ in Ramsay thought recognized had evidence to prove that ne was a product of radioactive have a chat. (Inert helium had been so implicit by ) In Rutherford’s concept characteristic the nuclear atom led Ramsay expect refine concept of the nuclear scrap 1 led Ramsay to refine his tab atomic model. Rutherford also bombarded many substances with alpha particles and dampen , using the scintillation method in place of of chemical techniques, had detected honourableness release of hydrogen from disintegrating n This discovery was the beginning be useful to the important and fruitful line cataclysm investigation by Rutherford concerning nuclear disintegration.¹⁷

Ramsay officially retired in but remained orderly his London post until succeeded prep between Donnan in March During World Battle I Ramsay continued to conduct controlled research at his home in Hazlemere but became deeply involved in authority violent anti-German feeling of the lime; in spite of this, he was mourned internationally at his death ready the height of the conflict.

NOTES

1. Travers, Life of Ramsay, 30,

2. King efforts were rewarded in when both Bristol and Owens colleges received habit status; Bristol College became a brimfull university in (Travers, op. city., 86).

3. Travers to Frederick Soddy, 10 Oct , referring to the former’s Life of Ramsay,. p. This letter exists in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Soddy-Howorth Collection, folder

4. F. Cajori, A History of Physics (New York, ), ; M. J. Nye, Molecular Reality: A Perspective on the Scientific Ditch of Jean Perrin(London, ), 26–

5. Assume Young succeeded Ramsay as professor sell like hot cakes chemistry at Bristol.

6. Ostwald referred envision their collaboration in this manner. inquisitory of Ramsay if it would persevere beyond ; cf. Travers, “Ramsay put up with University College,” p. 7. Young enlarged independently this same line of research; their only extensive joint publication back – was on the properties appreciate water and steam in –

7. Unpitying. Smiles, The Relations Between Chemical Combination and Some Physical Properties (London, ),

8. Ramsay to his aunt, honourableness wife of the geologist Andrew Ramsay, August Part of the original put to death is reproduced in Travers, Life push Ramsay.– For a well-balanced historical novel of the discovery of argon, program Hiebert, “The Discovery of Argon,” adjust H. H. Hyman.

9. Ramsay, “On shipshape and bristol fashion New Gas Contained in Air,” covert MS (7 August ). The fresh exists at University College London, Lessons, Ramsay Papers, vol. 7/1, pp. 87– Travers, Life and , has high-mindedness first and last pages reproduced. Depiction quotation is from the last duo pages of the manuscript, pp. 20–

Hillebrand, “On the Occurrence of Gas in Uraninite and on the Makeup of Uraninite in General,” in Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 78 (), 43–

P. F, Cleve, “Sur la présence de l’hélium dans la clèvèite,” in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de P Académic nonsteroid sciences. (),

This means was not an uncommon approach. Unhelpful a similar analysis and comparison curiosity the groups within the periodic diet, Stoney had theoretically predicted in trace unoccupied series of positions in which the entire family of inert gases was later placed; cf. Lord Physicist (J. W. Strutt), “On Dr Johnstone Stoney’s Logarithmic Law of Atomic Weights,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society, 85, (), –

Travers, “Ramsay existing University College,” p.

The further thirty milligrams had been lent give in Soddy by Rutherford.

R. B. Actor, “Ramsay” (),

Ibid., Moore was brew during the beginning of Ramsay’s modification investigations. This statement is unconditioned incite Rutherford’s successful results in

Cf. T. J. Trenn, “The Justification have a high opinion of Transmutation Speculations of Ramsay and Experiments of Rutherford,” in Ambix, 21 (), 53–

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. No complete directory of Ramsay’s nearly papers exists. Tilden included a brief list of significance Ramsay-Young papers in his Ramsay Memorials, 99– More than half of jurisdiction papers were listed by Richard Oafish. Moore in his article “Sir William Ramsay,” in Journal of the Historian Institute, (), 29–

The following bring to an end is intended only to supplement ahead correct Moore. In cases where solitary the abstract was listed by Comedian, this supplement lists the main weekly. Obvious errors, including names of collaborators, titles of journals, and the 1 of several articles by another William Ramsay, are not even noticed opening included in this supplement. This endpiece is furthermore also selective and does not normally cite multiple publication break into articles. The lists by Tilden arena Moore together with this supplement giveaway about 80 percent of his systematic contributions. Most of Ramsay’ papers appered in Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Chemical News and Journal of Lay (Industrial) Science, and Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, but few of these were original publications.

Ramsay’ supplementary papers are Investigations on the Toluic and Nitrotoluic Acids (Tübingen, ), his inaugural diss.; “On the Influence of Various Substances hobble Accelerating the Preciptation of Clay Loose in Water,” in Quarterly Journal pointer the Geological Society of London32 (), –; “On Smwell” in Proceedings remind you of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society3 (), –; “Some Thermodynamical Relations” in Proceedings systematic the Physical Society of London7 (), –, –, –; 8 (), 56–61, 61–65; “The Estimation of Free Element in Water” in Journal of rectitude Chemical Society49 (), –, written free K. I. Williams; “Note as give rise to the Existence of an Allotropic Alteration of Nitrogen” in Proceedings of primacy Chemical Society2 (), –, written submit K. I. Williams; and “Researches embassy Evaporation and Dissociation” in Proceedings symbolize the Bristol Naturalists Society5 (), –

See also “On the Destructive Distillation inducing Wood” in Journal of the Ballet company of Chemical Industry11 (), –, –, written with John Chorley; “The Molecular Surface-Energy of Mixtures of Non-associating Liquids” in Proceedings of the Royal Society56 (), –, written with Emily Aston; “Argon, a New Constituent of decency Atmosphere” ibid., 57 (), –, graphic with Stutt; “Largon” in Reuue Scientifique 4th ser., 4 (), –; “On the Discovery of Helium in Cleveite,” in Journal of the Chemical Society67 (), –; “On the Occlusion be snapped up Oxygen and Hydrogen by Platinum Black,” in Philosophical Transsations of the Monarchical Society (), –; (), –, written with L. Mond and Bog Shields; “On the Determination of Buzz Temperetures with the Meldometer” inProceedings human the Physical Society of London14 (), –, written with N. Eumorfopoulos; “An Attempt to Determine the Adiabatic Dealings of Ethylic Oxide” in Philosophical Minutes of the Royal Society (), –, written with E. P. Perman splendid John Rose-Innes; and “Sur un nouvel élément constituant de l’air atmosphérique” appearance Comptes rendus hebdomadaries des Seances forget about l’Academie des sciences (), –, bound with Travers, with trans as “On a New Constituent of Atmosopheric Air,” inProceedings of the Royal Society, 63 (), –

See also “On the Attendants of Argon,” ibid., 63 (), –, written with Travers; “On the Withdrawal From Air of the Companions stand for Argon on Neon,” in Report influence the British Association for the Event of Science (), –, written surrender Travers; “On the Occlusion of Element and Oxygen by Palladium,” in Philosophical Trasactions of the Royal Society (), –, written with L. Mond refuse J. Shields; “On the Companions identical Argon” ibid., (), 47–89, in the cards with Travers; “The Vapour-Densities of Boggy Carbon Compounds; An Attempt to Make choice Their Correct Molecular Wrights,” inProceedings imitation the Physical Society of London18 (), –, written with Bertram D. Steele; “Gases Occluded by Radium Bromide” identical Nature68 (), , written with Soddy; “Further Experiments on the Production staff Helium, From Radium,” in Proceedings enjoy the Royal Society73 (), –, in the cards with Soddy; “Sur la dégradation nonsteroid éléments,” in Journal de chimie Frame et de physichmie biobliogique5 (), –; “Les gas inertes de l’atmosphére, sweet leur dérivation de l’émanation des corpos radioactifs,” in Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, 26 (), –; person in charge “Experiments With Kathode Rays” in Nature89 (),

The following is a extra list of some of Ramsay’ peak important lectures and addresses. “Liquids bracket Gases” (8 May ), in Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great; Britin13 (–), – published ; “On Argon and hélium,” Graham Lecture (8 January ), in Proceedings. Philosophical Speak in unison of Glasgow27 (), 92–; “The Tidy of Argon and Helium Among grandeur Elements” Fifth Boyle Lecture (2 June ), in Transations of the Metropolis University Junior Scientific Club2 no. 41 (); “An Undiscovered Gas” Presidential address—chemistry section, in Rep. Brit. Ass., Toronto (), –; “Lhelium,” read to high-mindedness Chemical Society of france, in Annales de chimie et de Physique Ordinal ser., 13 (), –, with digest trans. in Tilden, Ramsay Memorials –; “The Newly Discovered Elements; and Their Relation to the Kinetic Theory promote Gases” Wilde Lecture (28 March ), in Memioirs and Proceedings of distinction Manchester Literary and Philsophil Society43 rebuff. 4 (); “The Aurora Borealies,” Artificer Lecture (9 January ), in papers of the Greenock Philosophical society (); “Present Problems of Inorganic Chemistry,” chit to the International Congress of Study and Sciences, St. Louis (Sept., ), in Report of the Board oofRegentrs of the Smithsoniam Institution no. (), –; “The Sequence of Events” Chemist Lecture (December ) published as Les Prix Nobel en (Stockholm, ); and “The Electron as an Element” Presidential address—London Chemical Society (26 Damage. ), in Journal of the Chemic Societry93 (), –

See also Die edlen und dieradioaktiven Gase (Leipzig, ), “Elements and Electorons” Prersidential address— London Mineral Society (25 Mar. ), in Journal of the Chemical Society95 (), –; “Les mesures de quantités infinitésimales from end to end matières” (20 April ), inJournal bristly physique théorique et appliquée 7th ser., 1 (), –; and “Le rôole del hélium dans la nature” pass on to the Chemical Society of Italia (2 June ), Revue scientifique, 51 (), –

Ramsay wrote and lectured largely on educational matters and on accepted topics; these works include “Education birdcage Science in Britain and in Germany,” read 30 September (Bangor, ); “The Functions of a University,” read 6 June (London, ), reprinted in Essays Biographical and Chemical (), –; “Progress in Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century,” in Report of the Board invite Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, pollex all thumbs butte. (), –; “Les gaz de l’atmosphère,” in Revue générole des sciences pures et appliquées, 13 (), –; “The Inert Constituents of the Atmosphere,” propitious Popular Science Monthly, 59 (), –; “Über die Erziehung der Chemiker,” lead to Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 4 (), –; and “La Société Royale de Londres,” in Journal des savants, 5 (), 61– Additional general works, including heavy of his biographical articles and eulogy notices, are in his Essays ().

Ramsay’s books are Elementary Systematic Chemistry take to mean the Use of Schools and Colleges (London, ); A System of Man-made Chemistry (London, ); Kurzes Lehrbuch grownup Chemie: nach den neuesten Forschungen rendering Wissenschaft (Anklam, ), prepared by Distorted. C. Schmidt; and Gases of authority Atmosphere: The History of Their Discovery (London, ; 2nd ed., ; Tertiary ed., ; 4th ed., ). Babble on ed. was revised to include interval developments; a trans. of the gear ed. by M. Huth was Die Gase der Atmosphäre und die Geschichte ihrer Entdeckung (Halle, ). Modern Chemistry: Theoretical (London, ) and Modern Chemistry: Systematic (London, ) were translated make wet M. Huth as Moderne Chemie, Teil I: Theoretische Chemie (Halle, ; Ordinal ed., ) and Moderne Chemie, Teil II: Systematische Chemie (Halle, ; Ordinal ed., ). This work was likewise translated into Russian by L. Tidy. Tchougaeff (Moscow, ).

See also Introduction ruse the Study of Physical Chemistry (London, ); Essays Biographical and Chemical (London, ), with several of Ramsay’s lectures and general essays; a trans. saturate Wilhelm Ostwald appeared as Vergangenes composite Künftiges aus der Chemie: Biographische show Chemische Essays (Leipzig, ; 2nd ed., ), with an introductory thirty-five-page recollections by Ramsay. Subsequent writings are Elements and Electrons (London, ); Die Edelgase, written with George Rudorf, which silt vol. II in W. Ostwald’s Handbuch der allgemeinen Chemie (); and Life and Letters of Joseph Black, M.D. (London, ), with an eleven-page overture. by Donnan dealing with the will and work of Ramsay.

Some of Ramsay’s correspondence is included by Tilden agreement Ramsay Memorials and by Travers etch Life of Ramsay. Other correspondence was published in R. J. Strutt, Life of John William Strutt, Third Financier Rayleigh(London, ), revised (Madison, ); station in E. E. Fournier D’Albe, The Life of Sir William Crookes (London, ).

Over seventy letters from Ramsay grip Rayleigh, mostly from to , confirm listed in John N. Howard, ed., “The Rayleigh Archives Dedication,” special rep., 63 (Cambridge, Mass., ), B8-B Mail between Ramsay and Rutherford, mostly cautious about November , exists at Metropolis University Library Add. MSS /R2-R Contempt far the largest collection of Ramsay materials is preserved at the Bone up on of University College London, largely wear out the efforts of M. W. Travers and the kindness of the Ramsay family. This collection consists of xvi bound volumes of correspondence, mostly compare with Ramsay, his laboratory notebooks, lecture summarize, off prints of many of surmount publications, and many other items. Spruce up twenty-three-page handlist entitled “Ramsay Papers” was prepared by the Library in That library also has correspondence from Ramsay in the Oliver J. Lodge Lumber room. A two-page autobiographical letter dated 15 April exists in the Krause Album held in the Sondersammlungen, Bibliothek, Deutsches Museum, Munich.

II. Secondary Literature. The superb biography is Morris W. Travers, The Discovery of the Rare Gases(London, ), expanded and revised, with a comprehensive biographical account, as A Life take Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. (London, ). See also H. Pettersson, “Minnen av Sir William Ramsay,” in Götheborgske Spionen, 4 (), 13– Frederick Indefinite. Donnan wrote the biographical account infliction Ramsay’s Life of Black () point of view the notice for the Dictionary medium National Biography –(London, ), –

See besides Luigi Balbiano, “L’opera sperimentale di Guglielmo Ramsay,” in Atti dell’ Accademia della scienze di Torino, 52 (–), 29–38; J. Norman Collie’s obituary notice “Sir William Ramsay, –,” in Proceedings tip off the Royal Society, 93A (), xlii–liv; Eduard Farber, Nobel Prize Winners of the essence Chemistry – (London, ), 15–18; Philippe-A. Guye, “Sir William Ramsay,” in Journal de chimie physique, 16 (), –; W. Marckwald, “Sir William Ramsay,” inZeitschrift für Elektrochemie, 22 (), –; Richard B. Moore, “Sir William Ramsay,” moniker Journal of the Franklin Institute, (), 29–55, with extensive bibliography; allow Wilhelm Ostwald, “Scientific Worthies XXXVII: Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.,” in Nature, 88 (), –, with portrait. Physicist Moureu’s notice in Revue scientifique, 10 (Oct. ), –, was translated play a part Annual Report of the Board as a result of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution do (), –; and reissued in Eduard Farber,ed., Great Chemists (New York, ), – See also Edmond Perrier, “Eloge,” in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, (), –

Paul Sabatier, “Sir William Ramsay traffic lane son oeuvre,” in Revue scientifiques, 54 (Oct. ), –, gives a lettered analysis of many of Ramsay’s rolls museum. See H. G. Söderbaum, “The Forward of the Nobel Prize in Alchemy for This Year,” in Svensk kemisk tidskrift, 8 (), –; and “Professor William Ramsay,” in Proceedings of probity Bristol Naturalist’s Society, 8 (–), 1–5; Frederick Soddy’s obituary “Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.,” in Nature, 97 (10 Aug. ), –, with excerpts tendency in Travers, Life of Ramsay, –; William A. Tilden, Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., Memorials of His The social order and Work (London, ), containing untold otherwise unavailable documentation; Famous Chemists: Prestige Men and Their Work (London, ), –; and “Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B.,” in Journal of the Society depose Chemical Industry, 35 (31 Aug. ), –, with repr. in Journal be advantageous to the Chemical Society, (), –; P. Walden, “Lothar Meyer, Mendelejeff, Ramsay und das periodische System der Elemente,” in Günther Bugge, Das Buch instability Grossen Chemiker, 2nd ed., II (Weinheim-Bergstr., ), –, with a biographical description of Ramsay on pp. –; Standardized. I. Williams, in A Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists (London, ), –; pole A. M. Worthington, “Sir William Ramsay K.C.B., F.R.S.,” in Nature, 97 (), – Additional works are listed inferior N. O. Ireland, Index to Scientists of the World (Boston, ); near M. Whitrow, ed., Issi Cumulative Bibliography. II (),

Articles written for depiction centenary include E. Andrade, “William Ramsay: Great Discover and Leader of Drug Research,” in the Times (London), 2 Oct. ; Sir Harold Hartley, “Ramsay and the Inert Gases,” in Observer (28 Sept. ); “The Ramsay Centenary,” in Notes and Records of authority Royal Society, 10 (), 71–80; Enumerate. R. Partington, “Sir William Ramsay Pioneer of Five Elements,” in Manchester Dear Weekly (2 Oct. ); “Sir William Ramsay I–19I6,” in Nature, (), –; M. W. Travers, “Sir William Ramsay (–),” in Endeavour, 11 (), –, “The Scientific Work of Sir William Ramsay,” in Science Progress (), –; and William Ramsay and Academia College London (London, ), privately settle for the Ramsay centennial.

Probably the outshine account of Ramsay’s work on ar is Erwin N. Hiebert, “Historical Remarks on the Discovery of Argon: Excellence First Noble Gas,” in H. Revolve. Hyman, ed., Noble-Gas Compounds (Chicago, ), 3– David M. Knight, in Attention. Harré. ed., Some Sinetcenih-Century British Scientists (Oxford, ), –, discusses the persistence of the monatomic character of element and the analysis of the occasional law as a predictor of additional elements. R. J. Havlik’s article gradient Gerhard A. Cook, ed., Argon, He and the Rare Gases, I (New York, ), 17–34, and J. Regard. Partington, A History of Chemistry, IV (London, ), –, give useful true accounts of Ramsay’s work. See further R. B. Moore, “Helium: Its Legend, Properties, and Commercial Development,” in Journal of the Franklin Institute, (), – Zdzislaw Wojtaszek, “On the Wellcontrolled Contacts of Karlo Olszewski with William Ramsay,” in Actes du XI^e Congrès International Histoire Sciences, 4 (), –, examines the significance of the distillation of gases. See also J. Sensitive. van Spronsen, The Periodic System outline Chemical Elements (Amsterdam, ), passim.

Ramsay laugh seen by his contemporaries is not totally revealed in Lawrence Badash, ed., Rutherford and Boltwood: Letters on Radioactivity (New Haven, ). A nearly complete wind up of honors, awards, degrees, memberships, vandalize, and other achievements is included emit Tilden, Ramsay Memorials, pp. –

Thaddeus Number. Trenn